As the demands of the fashion industry surpasses the maximum global production capacity of cotton – an estimated 26 million metric tons – and concerns over unethical labor practices and high water and pesticide usage make virgin cotton less appealing, Man Made Cellulosic Fibers (MMCFs), currently accounting for 6% of the global fiber market are expected to fill the cellulosic gap. 

MMCFS, also known as regenerated cellulosic fibers and partially synthetic fibers, are fibers derived from and regenerated into cellulose, differing by process and sometimes specific cellulosic sources. You may recognize the names of common MMCFs such as Rayon, Viscose, Modal, Lyocell, and Cupro, but what are they and how do they impact our environment? 

Viscose Rayon

Process

Viscose Rayon is the most popular and longest established MMCF, accounting for 80% of MMCFs. The process begins with mechanical breakdown of cellulosic materials (mostly trees) into cellulosic pulp, which is then dissolved in caustic soda (sodium hydroxide). After steeping for a specified time, it is shredded and allowed to age. The pulp is then treated with carbon disulfide to form an orange-coloured cellulose xanthate. It is then put in a caustic soda of lower concentration. An acetate dope is added to the alkali cellulose stage which is necessary for the yarn luster. Purified cellulose is chemically converted into a soluble compound. A solution of this compound is passed through a spinneret into a coagulation bath usually containing sulfuric acid compounds regenerating the cellulose into solid fibers. 

Impact

In the viscose fiber process, steam, pulp, chemical pollution are the main contributors to the process’s environmental impact. Toxic chemicals involved such as carbon disulfide, zinc, and sulfuric acid escape the process, contaminating the air, water, and local food sources, endangering workers and local communities. Carbon disulfide has been linked to higher levels of coronary heart disease, birth defects, skin conditions, and cancer. Repeated exposure to zinc can cause skin cancer.  A zinc free process was patented in 1983, however zinc sulfate is still commonly used in the process today. 

It is possible to produce rayon more sustainably through responsible pulp sourcing, careful waste water management and water recovery systems (closed system), and clean energy usage, however the process is inherently toxic, and water and energy intensive. 

Cuprammonium Rayon (Cupro, Bemberg silk)

Process 

Cupro involves a similar process to viscose rayon, alternatively using cotton linters (the fuzz around cotton seeds supplied by the oil mills that make oil from cotton seeds) as their cellulosic source and different, yet still harmful chemicals in the dissolution process. Cellulose is dissolved in a solution of copper salts and ammonia, then extruded into a coagulation bath of dilute acid, alcohol, and concentrated cresol solution. It then goes through several more chemical baths, eventually reconstituting into cellulose. 

Impact

As Asahi Kasei is the sole remaining producer of Cupro, we can assess their practices for an accurate depiction of Cupro’s impact. Although the process inherently uses harmful chemicals, their system is closed loop, dealing with chemical pollution responsibly. The company’s OEKO-Tex certification ensures that the fiber doesn’t pollute the environment during wear or degradation. 

Cotton linters as a cellulosic pulp source is more sustainable than hardwood, as a high cellulosic-content pre-consumer byproduct as opposed to a valuable carbon sink. 

Asahi Kasei appears to be on top of sustainable innovation and transparency, disclosing their partner oil mills, and setting goals for carbon neutrality by 2050, however they still use unclean energy (48% coal), for their intensive process. 

Modal (subcategory of Rayon)

Process

Modal production follows the Viscose Rayon process with additional steps and chemicals and is typically derived solely from beech trees. The wet spinning process is adjusted for example by increasing the amount of zinc sulfate in the precipitation bath, or using an increased load of CS2 in dope preparation, spinning solutions with higher DP values, different spinning bath composition and with addition of modifiers, resulting in a modified internal structure.

Impact

The environmental impact of Modal fiber resembles that of Rayon, heavily relying on the sustainability of individual companies’ practices. Modal relies entirely on Beechwood, a hardwood tree.  Beech trees are relatively slow growing, growing 1-2 feet per year, and living for 250 plus years. However, when harvested by the coppicing method, they  easily and quickly regenerate after being cut. They are often grown on tree plantations, which can contribute to a loss of biodiversity. 

Lyocell

Processing

Compared with the viscose process, Lyocell is prepared by directly dissolving cellulose pulp in a non-toxic, non-derivative organic NMMO solvent, and without the need for sodium hydroxide, carbon dioxide, or zinc. The process doesn’t involve a chemical change, making it simpler than Viscose Rayon and has a 99.8% chemical recovery rate. 

Impact

Lyocell is considered the most environmentally friendly process among MMCFs. 

As chemical pollution and water usage is not a concern with a closed loop system, the electricity, pulp, and steam in lyocell fiber are the main contributors to lyocell’s environmental impact.  Like all other MMCFs, the impact of the fiber relies on the individual practices of producers. 

Lyocell’s processing method is compatible with other, lower grade cellulose sources, presenting opportunities for chemical fiber recycling as demonstrated by Aditya Birla* with the development of LIVA REVIVA, which uses 30% consumer textile waste and Lenzing with REFIBRA technology that uses a minimum of 30% recycled pre/post consumer cotton textile waste. 

Using alternative cellulosic sources like bamboo, hemp, byproducts (cotton linters), waste materials or recycled textiles can further reduce the impact of Lyocell production on the environment.

Environmental Impact across all MMCFs

Although MMCFs are a more sustainable alternative to fossil fuel derived fibers, it is important to consider the impact of the industry’s use of energy, water, and raw material sourcing. Producers can implement methods that effectively reduce their energy impact, such as deriving thermal energy from their own byproduct pulp (only 40% of tree matter is used in the process), and substituting additional needs with cleaner energy sources such as wind and solar. To address water consumption and water waste management, closed loop systems are necessary for producers to protect the environment and local communities. 

As the main raw material source used are trees — valuable carbon sequesters and habitats which contribute to soil erosion prevention and biodiversity — it is important to consider whether years of carbon sequestration are worth the production of clothing at all. Sustainable harvesting methods when dealing with trees are vital.  According to Canopy, roughly a third of rayon comes from materials sourced from ancient and endangered forest and according to their Hot Button Report, one-sixth of the world’s biggest viscose producers are described as “high risk.” As the industry grows, if irresponsible tree harvesting practices continue, we may effectively trade the exhaustion of one natural resource, for another. 

 Conclusion 

Every garment represents water, air, soil, and other natural resources extracted from the earth. According to Textile Exchange, 116 million tonnes of fiber were produced in 2022, and this figure is expected to grow to 147 million tonnes in 2030. 

The real answer is degrowth. As long as companies continue to overextend natural resources and produce at scale, alternative raw material sources may effectively exchange one problem for another. The realistic answer is policy. The fashion industry has historically been under-regulated and opaque, making ethical and environmentally conscious practices largely voluntary. Although some materials are more sustainable than others by nature, much of a material’s impact depends on factors determined by the producer, making it difficult for consumers to make ethical decisions based solely on a material tag. 

Understanding the nuance of where your clothing comes from is important in understanding its environmental and ethical impact. 

You deserve to know what you’re buying. Use your voice to demand transparency from brands. Read EARTHDAY.ORG’s Fashion Legislation Report to learn about all the recent laws enacted in the European Union, The United States and around the world that intend to control fast fashion and its adverse impacts on the natural world and all living things.

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Statistics are frequently changing when it comes to the fashion industry, but with more research becoming available all the time we are increasingly gaining clarity about how fashion, in particular fast fashion, impacts the Earth.  

In this series of articles, we want to present the most up-to-date facts on what these impacts are on our Air, Water, Soil, Forests, and Oceans so that you can best realize what your fast fashion purchase means for the planet. This is Water.

Water is essential to the existence of all life, but it is also a finite resource meaning the preservation of clean, unpolluted water is an imperative for every living thing on the planet. But water has never been more precious than it is now, in the age of climate change, where many parts of the world are threatened by drought. Industries that waste or pollute our water supply need to be examined. The production of textiles for clothing is one such industry. Textile production, including cotton farming, uses around 93 billion cubic meters of water annually and at each stage from beginning to end is highly polluting.   

The Impact of Cotton Farming

In 50% of the areas where it is grown, farming cotton requires irrigation.  And the amount of water needed to grow cotton in drier climates is higher than in wetter regions. For example, in Turkmenistan, the production of 1 kilogram of cotton requires 13,696 liters of water, but to yield the same amount of cotton in Brazil, only 17 liters are needed. 

In drier areas without sufficient rainfall, irrigation for water-demanding crops can drastically impact local populations already struggling with limited water resources. The Aral Sea, located between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, was once the fourth-largest lake in the world but was drained to irrigate cotton farms in the late 1960s. As a result, local fisheries struggled, and dependent communities collapsed. Desertification set it, and with increased salinity wetlands and marshes have reduced, and ecosystems have collapsed along with a concomitant loss of biodiversity. 

As a result of farming, water basins and underground aquifers can collapse as they have in Saudi Arabia and as they are threatening to do in San Joachim, California. These can take thousands of years to recharge, or dry up permanently.  

Poor irrigation and water management cannot prevent excessive runoff and water waste.  In the case of cotton farming, this can contribute to the contamination of shared water resources — rivers, lakes, wetlands and underground aquifers. The agrochemicals used, like pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers, introduced to water systems, pollute drinking water which in turn can damage human health and are destructive to local ecosystems with immediate toxicity or long term accumulation.

Textile Processing = Contamination

Once raw materials are produced, the next step in textile production is processing. The processing stage including the production of yarns for textiles and the ‘wet processing’ stage where fabric is dyed and treated with finishes both require enormous quantities of water and the use of highly toxic chemicals.  An average-sized textile mill with a production capacity of about 8,000 kg per day of fabric consumes around 1.6 million liters of water daily.

The industry uses more than 8,000 individual chemicals in processing garments including more than 3,600 individual textile dyes. The effluent from textile mills can contain sulfur, naphthol, vat dyes, azo dyes, nitrates, acetic acid, heavy metals like copper, arsenic, lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury, nickel and cobalt, formaldehyde, fixing agents, surfactants, chlorinated stain removers, hydrocarbon based softeners, caustic soda based soaps and non biodegradable dyeing agents as well as PFAS, phthalates, PFCs, brominated and chlorinated flame retardants, chlorobenzenes, and organotin compounds. 

The wastewater containing these chemicals is often deposited in local water systems polluting rivers, streams, groundwater, and aquifers. Wastewater from textile mills sent to clean waters can prevent the penetration of light necessary for photosynthesis, causing harm to marine life.  If used to irrigate nearby farms and cropland, it can result in loss of soil fertility and productivity impacting the food web and contaminating food with the toxic effluent – all with direct and indirect effects on human health. 

Rivers in Lesotho in southeast Africa such as the Caledon River and its tributaries are stained blue. Called the “Blue River”, by the local population, the toxic water is stained by effluent from denim manufacturing. A report from Water Witness International in 2021 showed waterways in the top sourcing countries in the global fashion supply chain in Africa were highly polluted.  Water samples from Tanzania’s Msimbazi River had a basic pH level as high as 12, the level of bleach – making the water used for drinking, bathing and irrigation hazardous and putting the communities relying on the river at risk.  

Release of Synthetic Microfibers

Besides the hazards of the wide range of chemicals used to dye and treat these textiles, all clothing sheds microfibers.  Microfibers are defined as less than 5mm in diameter and are shed during washing, drying and wearing our clothing. While the production of cotton can cause environmental and health issues for wildlife and humans, today over 70% of our clothing is made with synthetic materials such as polyester, nylon, and acrylics which are made from oil.  When microfibers are shed from synthetic materials, they are also defined as microplastics.  Today 35% of all the microplastics in the ocean are from our clothes. 

Wastewater treatment plants do capture a large portion of the microfibers released from washing machines. However, due to the magnitude of wastewater the plants receive each day, a large portion of microfibers end up in our fresh water and in our oceans. Those that enter the ocean become part of the food chain and disrupt marine ecosystems.  Those microfibers that are captured in wastewater plants are trapped in biosolids which are then transferred as fertilizer to farmlands where the microfibers adversely affect crops and soil biota.  

The Final Fashion Insult Is Degradation 

After we throw our clothes away, they continue to pollute water systems via landfills. In the United States alone, 66% of textiles are sent to landfills where over time they decompose and degrade.  With precipitation and surface run-off, they pollute groundwater with both synthetic microfibers and the chemicals used in their production. 

Only 15% of all textiles are recycled meaning they are downcycled or shipped abroad. A large portion of these “recycled” textiles ultimately end up in landfills. But many of the countries where these discarded clothes are shipped do not have advanced municipal waste systems and cannot control polluted wastewater. Not only do the landfills leach microfibers and chemicals into the groundwater as they decompose, but unwanted clothing can also clog municipal street gutters.  This prevents effective water flow, leading to flooding and water-borne disease. Or clothes can be washed out to sea where they continue to decompose and shed more microfibers. 

What Can You Do?

While critical policy and legislative work needs to be undertaken to remedy the water pollution issues caused by the fashion industry, there are things all of us can do to help at a consumer level too.  

Studies have shown how you wash your clothes impacts the amount of microfibers that will end up in wastewater. Using a full load and short washing cycles (like washing clothes on delicate settings or hand washing) can decrease microfiber shedding significantly. Using a microfiltration trap and washing in cold water can help reduce shedding as well as line drying, using a front-loading machine and washing clothing less frequently.

Shopping from companies using sustainability-produced cotton made without pesticides can reduce water pollution by 98%.  Choosing clothing made from non-synthetic materials that use fewer chemicals during processing, such as linen or organic cotton, positively impacts water quality. Look for certifications in clothes that assure they contain no hazardous chemicals such as the Oeko-Tex Standard 100, Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), the EU Ecolabel, or the bluesign® certification.  

Think about using vintage, not faux vintage lines in the branded stores, but look to local thrift shops. Often clothes made decades ago are of better quality and you will have a unique piece of clothing.  

Reject fast fashion; it might be inexpensive to follow new fashion fads, but it means you will probably only wear something a few times before it’s out of fashion or it’s simply fallen apart. Make a stand and buy fewer clothes. Create a capsule wardrobe of classic styles that you can interchange to create new outfits and really utilize what you ALREADY have. Define a look of your own and be original. Don’t follow the fashion herd. 

Set up clothing swaps with your friends and family so you can find new outfits without spending money or wrecking the planet! Our Fashion Swap Toolkit can show you how to do it. Not only will you get new pieces for your wardrobe, these sorts of events are fun too. When you are buying new clothes, read the labels. Reject clothes made with synthetic textiles and virgin cotton and look for more sustainable materials like recycled cotton, organic linen, organic hemp, recycled wool, and innovative new fibers ECONYL, Bananatex, Tencel and CIRCULOSE. 

Lastly, consider asking the shops you buy from to provide sustainable fabric choices; let them know you want better choices — write to them, message them on social media, tell the store manager, politely! It seems insurmountable but it’s not. Each of us can make a difference. We just have to try. 

EARTHDAY.ORG strives to educate consumers on sustainable fashion practices through the Fashion for the Earth campaign. Use our How To Shop Sustainably Toolkit, and do your part by learning how you can make an impact with your shopping choices and make your voice heard by signing the Fashion Industry Must Change petition.

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